Effective Porosity
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Effective porosity is most commonly considered to represent the
porosity Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void (i.e. "empty") spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0% and 100%. Strictly speaking, some tests measure ...
of a rock or sediment available to contribute to
fluid flow In physics and engineering, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids— liquids and gases. It has several subdisciplines, including ''aerodynamics'' (the study of air and other gases in motion) an ...
through the rock or sediment, or often in terms of "flow to a
borehole A borehole is a narrow shaft bored in the ground, either vertically or horizontally. A borehole may be constructed for many different purposes, including the extraction of water ( drilled water well and tube well), other liquids (such as petro ...
". Porosity that is not considered "effective porosity" includes water bound to clay particles (known as
bound water In hydrology, bound water, is an extremely thin layer of water surrounding mineral surfaces. Water molecules have a strong electrical polarity, meaning that there is a very strong positive charge on one side of the molecule and a strong negative ch ...
) and isolated "vuggy" porosity (
vug A vug, vugh, or vugg ( ) is a small- to medium-sized cavity inside rock. It may be formed through a variety of processes. Most commonly, cracks and fissures opened by tectonic activity (folding and faulting) are partially filled by quartz, ...
s not connected to other pores). The effective porosity is of great importance in considering the suitability of rocks or sediments as oil or gas
reservoir A reservoir (; from French ''réservoir'' ) is an enlarged lake behind a dam. Such a dam may be either artificial, built to store fresh water or it may be a natural formation. Reservoirs can be created in a number of ways, including contro ...
s, or as
aquifer An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing, permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater from aquifers can be extracted using a water well. Aquifers vary greatly in their characterist ...
s. The term lacks a single or straightforward definition. Even some of the terms used in its mathematical description ("V_” and “V_”) have multiple definitions.


Background for multiple definitions


Quartz

"Quartz" (more aptly termed “non-clay minerals”) forms part of the
matrix Matrix most commonly refers to: * ''The Matrix'' (franchise), an American media franchise ** ''The Matrix'', a 1999 science-fiction action film ** "The Matrix", a fictional setting, a virtual reality environment, within ''The Matrix'' (franchis ...
, or in core analysis terms, part of the grain volume.


Clay layers

"Clay layers" are dry clay (Vcl) which also form part of the grain volume. If a
core sample A core sample is a cylindrical section of (usually) a naturally-occurring substance. Most core samples are obtained by drilling with special drills into the substance, such as sediment or rock, with a hollow steel tube, called a core drill. The h ...
is dried in a normal dry oven (non-humidified atmosphere) the clay layers and quartz together form the grain volume, with all other components constituting core analysis “total porosity” (notwithstanding comments in ). This core total porosity will generally be equivalent to the total porosity derived from the density log when representative values for matrix and fluid density are used. The clay layers contain groups (often termed “structural water”). This structural water is never part of the pore volume. However, since
neutron The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , which has a neutral (not positive or negative) charge, and a mass slightly greater than that of a proton. Protons and neutrons constitute the nuclei of atoms. Since protons and neutrons beh ...
logs sense H (hydrogen) and all
hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, an ...
so-sensed is allocated as pore space, then neutron logs will overestimate porosity in argillaceous rocks by sensing as part of the pore space.


Clay surfaces and interlayers

“Clay surfaces and interlayers” comprise electrochemically bound water (clay-bound water or CBW) which varies in volume according to the clay-type, and the salinity of the formation water (see the Attachments section). The most common definition of effective porosity for sandstones excludes CBW as part of the porosity, whereas CBW is included as part of the total porosity. Worthington, P.F. “Conjunctive interpretation of core and log data through association of effective and total porosity models” In: Harvey, P.K. & Lovell, M.A. ( eds), Core-LogIntegration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 213-223.Adams, S., “Porosity—Total vs Effective”, WellEval.com website, 2005 That is: :\text = \text - \text To assess the effective porosity, samples are dried at 40-45%
relative humidity Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present. Humidity depe ...
and 60 °C. This means that one to two molecular layers of CBW can be retained, and a form of “effective porosity” can be measured on the samples. However, the CBW retained by the humidity-dried core plugs is not necessarily representative of CBW in the formation at reservoir conditions. This lack of reservoir representation occurs not only because CBW tends to a minimum value in cores humidity-dried at the specified conditionsBush, D.C. and Jenkins, R.E., “Proper Hydration of Clays for Rock Property Determination”, SPE 2589, JPT, July 1970, 800-804. but also because the amount of CBW at reservoir conditions varies with the salinity of formation water in the “effective” pore space. Hill, H.J., Shirley, O.J., Klein, G.E. “Bound Water in Shaly Sands—Its Relation to Qv and Other Formation Properties”, Log Analyst, May–June, 1979. Juhasz, I. “Conversion of routine air permeability data into stressed brine-permeability data” Tenth European Formation Evaluation Symposium, paper Y, 1986. Humidity-dried cores have no water in the “effective” pore space, and therefore can never truly represent the reservoir CBW condition. A further complication can arise in that humidity drying of cores may sometimes leave water of condensation in clay-free micropores. Log derivation of effective porosity includes CBW as part of the volume of shale (Vsh). Vsh is greater than the volume of Vcl not only because it incorporates CBW, but also because Vsh includes clay size (and silt-size) quartz (and other mineral) grains, not just pure clay.


Small pores

"Small pores” contain
capillary A capillary is a small blood vessel from 5 to 10 micrometres (μm) in diameter. Capillaries are composed of only the tunica intima, consisting of a thin wall of simple squamous endothelial cells. They are the smallest blood vessels in the body: ...
water which is different from CBW in that it is physically (not electrochemically) bound to the rock (by capillary forces). Capillary water generally forms part of the effective pore space for both log and core analysis. However, microporous pore space associated with shales (where water is held by capillary forces and hence is not true CBW) is usually estimated as part of the Vsh by logs and therefore not included as part of the effective porosity. The total water associated with shales is more properly termed “shale water” which is larger in value than CBW. If we humidity dried core samples, (some of) the electrochemically bound CBW would be retained, but none of the capillary-bound microporous water (notwithstanding comments in ). Therefore, although the figure infers that a humidity-dried core could produce an effective porosity similar to a log analysis effective porosity, the effective porosity from the core will usually be higher (see “Examples” section)—notwithstanding comments in. Traditionally, true CBW has been directly measured neither on cores nor by logs, although NMR measurement holds promise. At a given height above the free-water level, the capillary water becomes “irreducible”. This capillary water forms the irreducible water saturation (“Swi”) with respect to effective porosity (notwithstanding the inclusion of microporous water as Vsh during the log analysis) whereas for total porosity, the CBW and capillary water combined form the “Swi”.


Large pores

”Large pores” contain
hydrocarbon In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic, and their odors are usually weak or ex ...
s (in a hydrocarbon bearing formation). Above the transition zone, only hydrocarbons will flow. Effective porosity (with reference to the figure below) can be classified as only the hydrocarbon-filled large pore spaces above the transition zone. Anecdotally, effective pore space has been equated to displaceable hydrocarbon pore volume. In this context, if residual
hydrocarbon In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic, and their odors are usually weak or ex ...
saturation were calculated at 20%, then only 80% of the hydrocarbon-filled pores in the figure would constitute effective pore space.


Isolated pores

“Isolated pores” in
clastic Clastic rocks are composed of fragments, or clasts, of pre-existing minerals and rock. A clast is a fragment of geological detritus,Essentials of Geology, 3rd Ed, Stephen Marshak, p. G-3 chunks, and smaller grains of rock broken off other rocks ...
s, and most
carbonate A carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid (H2CO3), characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ion with the formula . The word ''carbonate'' may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the carbonate g ...
s, make a negligible contribution to porosity. There are exceptions. In some carbonates, for example, the tests of microscopic organisms can become calcified to create significant isolated intra-particular pore space which is not connected to the inter-particular pore space available for hydrocarbon storage and flow. In such cases, core analysis will only record the inter-particular pore space, or “effective porosity”, whereas the density and neutron logs will record the total pore space. Only by crushing the rock can the core analysis yield the total porosity seen by the logs. The traditional Petroleum Engineering and core analysis definition of effective porosity is the sum of the interconnected pore space—that is, excluding isolated pores. Therefore, in practice, for the vast majority of
sedimentary Sedimentary rocks are types of rock (geology), rock that are formed by the accumulation or deposition of mineral or organic matter, organic particles at Earth#Surface, Earth's surface, followed by cementation (geology), cementation. Sedimentati ...
rocks, this definition of effective porosity equates to total porosity.


Summary of terms

;Total porosity: The volume of the reservoir rock which is fluid (oil, water, gas) filled, expressed as a percentage or a fraction of the gross (bulk) rock volume. ;Effective porosity \phi_: The sum of all the interconnected pore space. In the vast majority of cases, this core analysis and Petroleum Engineering definition of effective porosity equates to total porosity. ;Effective porosity \phi_: Effective porosity measured on core samples which are dried in a humidity oven so that clays retain one or two molecular layers of bound water—however, this CBW tends to a minimum and is likely not reservoir representative. ;Effective porosity \phi_: Total porosity minus clay-bound water (CBW). ;Effective porosity \phi_: Log effective porosity. In essence, total porosity minus shale water, where solid minerals and the volume of shale (Vsh) constitute the matrix (non-effective porosity) and the remaining volume constitutes the effective porosity. For practical purposes, Vsh includes solid clays and the clay-sized and silt-sized fraction of non-clay minerals plus CBW and capillary bound water associated with shale micropores. ;Effective porosity \phi_: In a hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir above the transition zone, only that pore space which is filled with hydrocarbons. From the NMR log, this equates to the Free Fluid Index (FFI), in other words, all pore space above the T2 cut-off. :Effective porosity and micro-porosity determination can be determined from NMR T2 distribution as well from the capillary pressure curve. The cumulative distribution for the fully saturated sample is compared to the cumulative distribution after centrifuging at 100 psi. The cutoff time which separates the T2 distribution into macro-porosity and micro-porosity is defined as the relaxation time at the point where the cumulative porosity of the fully saturated sample equals the irreducible water saturation. ;Effective porosity \phi_: The volume of pore space which contains only producible hydrocarbons. ;Clay-bound water (CBW): The amount of Clay-
bound water In hydrology, bound water, is an extremely thin layer of water surrounding mineral surfaces. Water molecules have a strong electrical polarity, meaning that there is a very strong positive charge on one side of the molecule and a strong negative ch ...
is determined by the following equation ::\text = \phi_t \cdot \text \cdot \text :where \phi_t is total porosity, \text is
salinity Salinity () is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water, called saline water (see also soil salinity). It is usually measured in g/L or g/kg (grams of salt per liter/kilogram of water; the latter is dimensionless and equal ...
factor :and \text is the
Cation Exchange Capacity Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) is a measure of how many cations can be retained on soil particle surfaces. Negative charges on the surfaces of soil particles bind positively-charged atoms or molecules (cations), but allow these to exchange with ot ...
, meq/ml pore space ;Salinity factor (SF): 0.6425 \cdot S^ + 0.22 :where ''S'' is the
salinity Salinity () is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water, called saline water (see also soil salinity). It is usually measured in g/L or g/kg (grams of salt per liter/kilogram of water; the latter is dimensionless and equal ...
in g/ L,


Examples

A dramatic example of a core effective porosity vs log effective porosity discrepancy comes from some
Greensand Greensand or green sand is a sand or sandstone which has a greenish color. This term is specifically applied to shallow marine sediment that contains noticeable quantities of rounded greenish grains. These grains are called ''glauconies'' and c ...
reservoirs in
Western Australia Western Australia (commonly abbreviated as WA) is a state of Australia occupying the western percent of the land area of Australia excluding external territories. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Southern Ocean to th ...
. Greensands are green because of iron-bearing
glauconite Glauconite is an iron potassium phyllosilicate ( mica group) mineral of characteristic green color which is very friable and has very low weathering resistance. It crystallizes with a monoclinic geometry. Its name is derived from the Greek () m ...
which is usually recognized as
illite Illite is a group of closely related non-expanding clay minerals. Illite is a secondary mineral precipitate, and an example of a phyllosilicate, or layered alumino-silicate. Its structure is a 2:1 sandwich of silica tetrahedron (T) – alumina ...
/
mica Micas ( ) are a group of silicate minerals whose outstanding physical characteristic is that individual mica crystals can easily be split into extremely thin elastic plates. This characteristic is described as perfect basal cleavage. Mica is ...
or mixed layer illite-
smectite A smectite (from ancient Greek ''σμηκτός'' smektos 'lubricated'; ''σμηκτρίς'' smektris 'walker's earth', 'fuller's earth'; rubbing earth; earth that has the property of cleaning) is a mineral mixtures of various swelling sheet sil ...
clay by
x-ray diffraction X-ray crystallography is the experimental science determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles ...
. The glauconite ''per se'' will incorporate electrochemically bound water (CBW) because of the clay types. More importantly for the consideration of effective porosity, though, glauconite grains (part of the Vsh) have intra-particular microporous pore space which retains capillary-bound water. Glauconite can constitute a large percentage of the reservoir rock, and therefore the associated intra-particular pore space can be significant. Log effective porosities calculated at 25% in some Greensand reservoirs have yielded core analysis effective porosities of 35% at equivalent depths. The difference is the glauconitic microporosity which contains water at reservoir conditions and is included as part of the Vsh (non-effective porosity) by log analysis. However, glauconitic microporosity is measured as part of the effective porosity in core plugs, even if they are humidity dried. Greensands may cause varying degrees of difficulty for porosity log analysis. radicals affect neutron logs; the iron component is troublesome, and varying clay hydration needs to be considered for density log interpretation. The iron component affects the NMR logs and clay affects the sonic log. Therefore, it is essential to have a core - or at least a good understanding of the geology - before invoking total ''vs'' effective porosity relationships.


See also

*
Bulk density Bulk density, also called apparent density or volumetric density, is a property of powders, granules, and other "divided" solids, especially used in reference to mineral components (soil, gravel), chemical substances, (pharmaceutical) ingredients ...
*
Porosity Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void (i.e. "empty") spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0% and 100%. Strictly speaking, some tests measure ...
* Gas porosity


Notes

* Vcl has been expressed as: dry clay; dry clay plus CBW. Vsh has been described as: dry clay plus CBW (one version of a “perfect shale”); dry clay, CBW plus silt (the Dual Water “perfect shale” in the diagram above; dry clay, silt, CBW plus shale microporous water (the “practical shale”). * Different derivations of effective porosity are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Moreover, the unifying underlying theme is interconnected pore space even though unconnected pore space may result from a number of different mechanisms, such as physically isolated pores created by calcified fossils or flow-isolated microporosity. * No matter what definition of porosity is used, the calculated hydrocarbon-in-place should always be the same. For this reason, hydrocarbon-in-place can be expressed as a percentage of the total (gross) rock volume thereby bypassing the issue of porosity altogether. However, since current logging tools cannot directly sense hydrocarbon alone, the intermediate step of porosity calculation is still a basic necessity.


References

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Hydrology